2010 ). The main threats to lions are indiscriminate killing, primarily as a result of retaliatory or preemptive killing to protect human life and livestock, and prey base depletion (again, due to human activities). S. Use of these techniques will prove valuable as mountain lions continue range expansion into regions with high proportions of private lands (e.g., Midwestern states). S. E. 2011 ). T. Male lions usually leave almost all of the hunting to the females, but once a kill is made, they will sometimes drive off the females and cubs in order to be the first to feed upon the prey.

We classified mountain lions as kittens (dependent on mother), subadults (dispersal until 2.5–3 years), or adults (> 3 years) and fitted subadult and adult mountain lions with real-time GPS radio-collars (Advanced Telemetry Systems [ATS] G2110E, Isanti, Minnesota). W. F C. W. 2008 ), or energetic models ( Hornocker 1970 ; Ackerman et al.

They hunt at night so the fishes and other animals dont suspect them coming. Researcher Studies Feeding Habits Of Rapidly Declining Stellar Sea Lions Date: May 17, 2000 Source: Texas A&m University Summary: The Steller sea lion could use a good PR campaign.

Knopff

More recent studies have employed GPS collars to aid in monitoring large carnivore predation ( Anderson and Lindzey 2003 ; Webb et al. T. E. (2010) found that large ungulates (elk, moose [ Alces americanus ], feral horse [ Equus caballus ]) played a much greater role in mountain lion diets in Alberta (48.4% ad males; 8.6% ad females); similarly, Smith (2014) found high proportions of large ungulates (e.g., elk) in adult male mountain lion diets (20.1%) in Black Hills, South Dakota. Our sample of FGs consisted of 1 female with 3 kittens > 9 months, 1 female with 3 kittens 3‒6 months, and 1 female with kittens < 3 months. Boyce R. B.

2008 ; Knopff et al. This area rises 300 m above the surrounding prairie to 1,010 m and is comprised of a mosaic of open grassland and deciduous species, including green ash, quaking aspen ( Populus tremuloides ), burr oak ( Quercus macrocarpa ), paper birch ( Betula papyrifera ), western black birch ( Betula nigra ), and American elm ( Ulmus americana ), with a dense undergrowth of beaked hazelnut ( Corylus cornuta — Hagen et al.

Sand Proportion of juvenile prey consumed by mountain lions also increased during this period ( F1,14 = 4.959, P = 0.043; fawning period = 60.7%, 95% CI = 43.1–78.3; nonfawning period = 37.2%, 95% CI = 30.8–43.7). Prior to the introduction of GPS collars, estimates of predation rates were obtained primarily via intensive snow-tracking ( Hornocker 1970 ), radio-tracking ( Murphy et al. J. M. Our findings are similar to those of previous studies (e.g., Anderson and Lindzey 2003 ; Knopff et al. Recent recolonization of mountain lions ( Puma concolor ) into the Little Missouri Badlands of North Dakota has led to questions regarding the potential impacts of predation on prey populations in the region. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

J.

For comparison, an average human eats only about four pounds in a whole day. The Killdeer Mountains Region also was located within the study area and represented a 60-km 2 island of elevated habitat connected to the Badlands Region by a few small drainages. D. W.

Maechler

Beaver and porcupine were the primary nonungulate prey items in mountain lion diets in North Dakota. 2008 ; Knopff et al. First, we developed a model using the lme4 package ( Bates et al. Quantifying these feeding characteristics is essential to assessing the potential impacts of mountain lions on prey populations in the North Dakota Badlands, where deer dominate the available prey base and mountain lions represent the lone apex predator.

The canines of a lion (left), which are long, sharp and slightly recurved, are excellent tools for grasping and wounding prey, while the sharp premolars are effective in tearing away chunks of flesh.

wt (we used weight of adult female), K = growth rate (we used 0.0042), and I = age at inflection point (we used 140 days).



All procedures were approved by the South Dakota State University Animal Care and Use Committee (Approval number 11–080A) and followed recommendations of the American Society of Mammalogists ( Sikes et al. And, of course, they're perfectly happy to eat human beings as well. Elbroch 2010 ) and adjusted the growth rate ( K ) until birth weights approximated known ungulate birth weights for the region (e.g., Smith et al.

This lower number of night locations is likely due to mountain lions creating clusters at day bed locations while traversing “nontraditional” habitats; Ruth et al.

. H. S. 2010 ).

Small animals are killed with a bat of the paw or a quick bite to the head.



. AIC = Akaike’s Information Criteria; Hours = total number hours between the first and last location in cluster; Avg Dist = average distance that each location in cluster was from cluster centroid; Night Prop = total number of locations obtained between 1800 and 0600h in cluster divided by total number of locations in cluster; Season = season (summer = 15 May–15 November; winter = 16 November–14 May); Fidelity = number of locations in cluster minus number of locations away from cluster during cluster duration; Points = total number of locations within the cluster; Night Points = total number of locations within the cluster obtained between 1800 and 0600h. Sander We chose our cutoff values by maximizing the overall model accuracy, defined as the sum of the true positive predictions and true negative predictions divided by the sum of actual positive and negative clusters ( Sing et al. 2008 ; Knopff et al. Sing

Due to nearly complete consumption (e.g., only hooves, leg bones, or jaws remaining) prior to investigation of the cluster, differentiation of deer species and sex was often difficult for juvenile ungulates within the first few months postpartum. Hemker Wabakken B. What do lions eat? Arnemo

Bailey As this individual’s kill rate (0.92 ungulates/week) did not differ from adult male kill rates during this time period ( X¯ = 0.97 ungulates/week, 95% CI = 0.56‒1.38), we included all males as one demographic group for our analysis.

From 2011 to 2013, we captured mountain lions from established bait (e.g., roadkilled ungulates) sites with the use of foothold traps and foothold snares ( Logan et al. This model fit the data well ( Hosmer and Lemeshow 2000 ), producing a ROC area under the curve (AUC) of 0.90. 2010 ; Smith 2014 ). When we could determine that the prey was an adult but were unable to determine sex, we assigned the average adult weight (i.e., [ad M + ad F]/2— Knopff et al. L. M. However, maximizing the true negative rate, or specificity, may lead to an underestimate of kill rate by misclassifying many sites as not having a ≥ 4kg prey item present. Wilson K. A. 1986 ; Laundré 2005 ). Our assessment of small prey consumed also may represent an underestimation as mountain lions would likely exhibit shorter handling times with these items, which could result in clusters not generated at these sites. We developed a 2nd logistic model using this same methodology to further predict if clusters contained large (≥ 32kg) or small (< 32kg) prey items. b Weight estimates obtained from B. Parr, South Dakota State University, pers.

All of these factors have the potential to increase bias and decrease precision when estimating basic parameters such as kill rates ( Sand et al. J. W. Public lands within the study area included Theodore Roosevelt National Park (TRNP), the Little Missouri National Grasslands, Bureau of Land Management properties, North Dakota State Trust lands, and the North Dakota Game and Fish Department Killdeer Wildlife Management Area. We considered a cluster (i.e., a potential feeding site) as ≥ 2 GPS locations within 200 m over a 6-day period ( Knopff et al. We assessed model fit using Akaike’s Information Criteria (AIC— Burnham and Anderson 2002 ).

We identified prey species and sex by anatomical characteristics (e.g., tail, metatarsal glands, antlers) and determined age from tooth eruption and wear ( Severinghaus and Cheatum 1956 ). 2009 ). .

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. We programmed GPS collars to collect 8 locations/day (0000, 0300, 0600, 0900, 1200, 1500, 1800, and 2100h).

Boyce K. H. J. L. 2005 ).

K. H. They are opportunistic predators of … . 2015 ). The top 10 multivariate logistic regression models for predicting consumption of prey items ≥ 4kg by mountain lions ( Puma concolor ) at 506 GPS location clusters in western North Dakota, July 2012–July 2013. The top 10 multivariate logistic regression models for predicting consumption of large (≥ 34kg) or small (< 34kg) prey items by mountain lions ( Puma concolor ) at 506 GPS location clusters in western North Dakota, July 2012–July 2013.

Despite having to predict feeding events for a large number of clusters (51.4%), our model estimated that 11.6% of these clusters contained prey items, representing 17.3% of the total number of carcasses (investigated + predicted) used to calculate feeding rates. .

It was not until the early 2000s that reports of mountain lions in western North Dakota once again confirmed residency and a breeding population, indicating a comparatively recent recolonization ( North Dakota Game and Fish Department 2006 ). Wittmer Although care should be taken to ensure mountain lions are not prematurely displaced from carcasses, potentially altering feeding habits ( Knopff et al. Vegetation occurring in draws of the northern and eastern slopes was predominately Rocky Mountain juniper ( Juniperus scopulorum ) and green ash ( Fraxinus pennsylvanica ), while riparian areas contained cottonwood ( Populus deltoides ) stands. This area is contained within the North Dakota Game and Fish Department’s limited harvest mountain lion hunt area, “Zone 1,” which is outlined in black on the inset map.



Zimmermann Lindzey 2007 ; Bartnick et al.

C. S. P. R. We attempted to census mountain lion predation of ungulates throughout the monitoring period for each marked mountain lion by visiting all generated GPS clusters. Our study area was a mosaic of public (49%) and private land (51%), with the western portion predominately public and the eastern portion predominately private ( Fig.

. Hornocker

Ungulate consumption rates also were similar ( F1,15 = 0.742, P = 0.403) for summer (1.15 ungulates/week, 95% CI = 0.91–1.40) and winter (1.03 ungulates/week, 95% CI = 0.83–1.24).

M. S. T. K. Wielgus B. Hosek was integral in creating and maintaining our automated GPS location retrieval system and database.



We did not find significant seasonal differences in biomass consumed. We used a cutoff value of 0.55 resulting in a maximized overall model accuracy of 84.6%.

There is a rush and a leap as the lion comes in range of its victim. H. U

When we could not determine age class, we assigned yearling weight to the kill ( Knopff et al.

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